Artisanal Fisheries
What are artisanal fisheries?
Figure 1. Modified and enlarged from the FAO artisanal fishery glossery.
Though the definition as to exactly what qualifies as “artisanal” fishing is quite variable the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines it as:
"traditional fisheries involving fishing households (as opposed to commercial companies), using relatively small amount of capital and energy, relatively small fishing vessels (if any), making short fishing trips, close to shore, mainly for local consumption. In practice, definition varies between countries, e.g. from gleaning or a one-man canoe in poor developing countries, to more than 20-m. trawlers, seiners, or long-liners in developed ones. Artisanal fisheries can be subsistence or commercial fisheries, providing for local consumption or export. They are sometimes referred to as small-scale fisheries."[1]
The line between what is artisanal and what is industrial can be quite blurry at times so it is best to look at it as a sliding scale and not just black and white. By comparing the size of the boats used with the amount of capital invested per man-on board it is easier to see these divisions (figure 1). Meaning that even a large wooden canoe, that is man powered and using handlines would qualify as artisanal due to the small technological investment. While a small ultra-light boat equipped with the latest global positioning systems, downriggers, and sonar could still qualify as industrial.
Another key feature differentiating industrial and artisanal fishing is their purpose in fishing. Typically the goal of an industrial fishery is to catch as many fish as possible for economic gain. This carries with it various risks so as overfishing of a fish population causing the fishery to crash, among several other dangers. While it is true that artisanal fishers can sell a portion of their catch at markets, typically they primarily subsistence fish[2]. Meaning they go fishing to catch enough food to feed to their families and others in their area. This smaller scale, more ecologically friendly goal, carries with it less of a risk of endangering fish populations, though that is not to say that all artisanal fisheries are “better” then all industrial fisheries. There are several artisanal fisheries that do pose a great risk to several ecosystems and marine species. Often it is what technology is used, how it is employed, and how the fishery is managed that defines how eco-friendly an artisanal fishery is [3].
For more information on what artisanal fisheries are defined as see: http://www.fao.org/fishery/topic/14753/en
"traditional fisheries involving fishing households (as opposed to commercial companies), using relatively small amount of capital and energy, relatively small fishing vessels (if any), making short fishing trips, close to shore, mainly for local consumption. In practice, definition varies between countries, e.g. from gleaning or a one-man canoe in poor developing countries, to more than 20-m. trawlers, seiners, or long-liners in developed ones. Artisanal fisheries can be subsistence or commercial fisheries, providing for local consumption or export. They are sometimes referred to as small-scale fisheries."[1]
The line between what is artisanal and what is industrial can be quite blurry at times so it is best to look at it as a sliding scale and not just black and white. By comparing the size of the boats used with the amount of capital invested per man-on board it is easier to see these divisions (figure 1). Meaning that even a large wooden canoe, that is man powered and using handlines would qualify as artisanal due to the small technological investment. While a small ultra-light boat equipped with the latest global positioning systems, downriggers, and sonar could still qualify as industrial.
Another key feature differentiating industrial and artisanal fishing is their purpose in fishing. Typically the goal of an industrial fishery is to catch as many fish as possible for economic gain. This carries with it various risks so as overfishing of a fish population causing the fishery to crash, among several other dangers. While it is true that artisanal fishers can sell a portion of their catch at markets, typically they primarily subsistence fish[2]. Meaning they go fishing to catch enough food to feed to their families and others in their area. This smaller scale, more ecologically friendly goal, carries with it less of a risk of endangering fish populations, though that is not to say that all artisanal fisheries are “better” then all industrial fisheries. There are several artisanal fisheries that do pose a great risk to several ecosystems and marine species. Often it is what technology is used, how it is employed, and how the fishery is managed that defines how eco-friendly an artisanal fishery is [3].
For more information on what artisanal fisheries are defined as see: http://www.fao.org/fishery/topic/14753/en
Techniques used in artisanal fisheries
For the most part artisanal fisheries can be as varied as commercial fisheries and they often use similar techniques for the capture of their target species. As such, in order to better understand artisanal fisheries you must understand how most fisheries work in general. Below is a list of some of the most common fishing techniques used in artisanal fishing. Many of the issues described are much less severe in artisanal fishing due to their smaller scale but they still may be present [4]. Following most techniques is a video that shows how each technique works.
A commonly used site for purchasing gear used in artisanal fisheries can be seen here: http://www.artisanalfish.com/
A commonly used site for purchasing gear used in artisanal fisheries can be seen here: http://www.artisanalfish.com/
Hook and line
Figure 2. Use of a hook and a line with various deploying techniques.
The technique that typically immediately comes to mind when one thinks of fishing. Using this technique a single person uses a relatively small numbers of lines and hooks to catch a fish. This ranges from a single line with a hook on the end which is brought up by hand, to the using a rod for the same purpose, all the way to the more advanced systems used for trolling such as downriggers. Though the technology varies greatly they all work on the same principle. Basically a single fisher is in direct control of a small number of lines each containing only a few hooks (as compared to longlining described below). These hooks can be baited or have lures designed to catch only specific kinds of fish, helping to reduce bycatch. Hooks can vary in size so that by using large enough hooks the fishermen can avoid catching juveniles of their target species, which in and of itself can help maintain the population's numbers. Since each line is manually brought up directly after a fish takes the baits they spend relatively little time on the line and if when brought up are deemed not to be what they are after, whether it be bycatch, improper size or sex they can be immediately released and typically have a reasonable chance of survival [5]. This technique is one of the most eco-friendly in the sense that it has less of an impact largely due to the features described above and the relatively small scale at which it affects a population. That is not to say that if used in excess this technique is not capable of causing as much stress of the fish population as any other technique [6].
Purse seining
Figure 3. Depiction of a closed purse sein with its catch.
Purse seining is used to capture large schools of pelagic fish by encircling them with a large net. A small boat pulls the net off of the larger stationary one, and surrounds the school before coming back to the large ship. Along the bottom, deepest part, of the net runs a line that can be pulled tight causing the bottom of the net to close much like a purse, which traps all fish inside from escaping. The larger vessel can then draw in the net and take the captured fish on-board. Some smaller purse seins actually take the entire catch to shore while the fish remain in the sein. This is especially useful in remote areas without a port [5].
A downside to this technique is that it catches everything inside the purse, including some non-target species that feed on these schools such as billfish and dolphins. Modern practices have reduced this added risk by lowering parts of the net and allowing the non-target species to escape.
A downside to this technique is that it catches everything inside the purse, including some non-target species that feed on these schools such as billfish and dolphins. Modern practices have reduced this added risk by lowering parts of the net and allowing the non-target species to escape.
Gill nets
Figure 4. Fish gills trapped in net allows for capture.
As their name implies, gill nets capture fish by taking advantage of a fish's gills. Basically, as a fish is swimming around it encounters the net. The mesh size of a gill net is completely uniform which makes it very selective for certain sized fish. If the fish is to small it simply goes through the mesh without any consequence, while if a fish is too large it cannot fit its head through the mesh deep enough to reach its gills so it is not trapped. But if a fish small enough so that it can fit its head through deep enough to reach its gills but too large for the rest of its body to fit through it become stuck. The gills of a fish are angled backwards so that if the fishes tries to swim backwards to free itself from the net the mesh enters the slit, where water exits, between the outer portion of the gill (the operculum) and the rest of the body effectively capturing the fish until the fisher pulls it out. Since the mesh can be size specific it can avoid capturing juvenile fish which have yet to reproduce and it avoids capturing larger fish that can be important in keeping the fish population plentiful since larger fish have more reproductive success. Gill nets, especially the now illegal drifting gill net, are the cause of some of the most severe seabird bycatch, but in some fisheries they still pose a serious risk for marine mammals, such as dolphins [7].
Longline
Figure 5. Modified after Moreno et al. (2006).
Longlining can best be described as a massive scale hook and line operation. Here a single long line is let off from a boat and periodically another line runs off of this main line where one to several baited hooks or lures are attached. This process is continued for very long distances, upwards of 40 miles (though typically much smaller for small-scale artisanal fishing). This technique is relatively inexpensive and not very labor intensive as machines are used for hauling the line in and out and large tracts of water can be covered fairly easily.
Many of the issues seen in hook and line fishing are also seen here. But the issue of bycatch is considerably more prevalent due to the larger scale. A huge issue is catching sea turtles, marine mammals, and seabirds on the hooks, where in the time that it takes to be brought to the surface they can suffocate. Circle hooks have reduced this issue, especially for sea turtles but it is still a problem, while hanging streamers from lines reduce seabird mortality [8].
Many of the issues seen in hook and line fishing are also seen here. But the issue of bycatch is considerably more prevalent due to the larger scale. A huge issue is catching sea turtles, marine mammals, and seabirds on the hooks, where in the time that it takes to be brought to the surface they can suffocate. Circle hooks have reduced this issue, especially for sea turtles but it is still a problem, while hanging streamers from lines reduce seabird mortality [8].
Dredging
Figure 6. Dragged behind a ship for bottom species.
This is one of the most common methods used to obtaining organisms on or near the ocean bottom. In its simplest form a dredge is a bag shaped net with a weighted front end that acts as a plow. The front edge digs into the ocean bottom and scoops everything in its path into the basket where it can later be hauled up and target organisms can be sorted out. The main targets in this type of fishing is crustaceans, like crabs and shrimp, and mollusks, mainly bivalves such as mussels, oysters, and clams. The techniques is very effective at obtaining these organisms but the problem lies in the damage it causes to the environment in obtaining these organisms.
The dredge is indiscriminate in what it picks up, it just continues plowing through everything in this path. This destroys or displaces countless other species in the area. This is of special concern where corals are present, since a dredge can destroy the coral and it can take many years for the area to recover the important habitat for other organisms. Also, the bivalves that are removed are very important for other organisms; whether they act as a substrate for them to attach, places to hide, or as a nursery ground for several organisms including salmon. The issue is that though this technique is destructive the only other option is diving which can be used in some areas quite effectively while in other it would be impractical to impossible [9].
The dredge is indiscriminate in what it picks up, it just continues plowing through everything in this path. This destroys or displaces countless other species in the area. This is of special concern where corals are present, since a dredge can destroy the coral and it can take many years for the area to recover the important habitat for other organisms. Also, the bivalves that are removed are very important for other organisms; whether they act as a substrate for them to attach, places to hide, or as a nursery ground for several organisms including salmon. The issue is that though this technique is destructive the only other option is diving which can be used in some areas quite effectively while in other it would be impractical to impossible [9].
Traps and pots
Figure 7. Traditional trap used to catch target species. source-
This technique is far more common and varied in artisanal fishing then it is in industrial fishers. Other then species such as crab, lobster, and a few fish species traps are rarely used in these larger scale operations. But for an artisanal fisher it provides a relatively easy way to catch the target species [1]. Though the design of a trap varies greatly depending on the location and what is being caught the design is basically the same. The organism swims through an opening whether due to just passive swimming or attracted to some sort of food, and is unable to escape. These traps tend to be designed to target specific species, due to size, bait, or position in the ecosystem and often exclude juvenile fish either through the mechanism of the trap or due to escape holes designed to let smaller fish out. The fish remain in the trap until the fisherman returns to check his trap. This means that if a non-target species was captured other than an increase in stress during the capture it can be released with high likelihood of being perfectly healthy. Due to how the traps work and their small scale they are one of the cleanest techniques available but are limited in the extent of their use. _
Fishing from land
Figure 8. Hawaiian spearfishing.
This is quite possibly the most simple form of fishing. Here the fisher man remains of land and employs various techniques to capture fish. This ranges all the way from spearfishing, to using a bow and arrow, to hook and line fishing from shore, to throwing small nets, all the way up to using horses to drag a net along the shallow water near a beach. These techniques are very limited as they can only target species that are in rivers or near shore. They are also quite eco-friendly because in most of the techniques the fisher actually see exactly what he is catching before even attempting the capture. Due to many of these attributes shore fishing is almost solely used for subsistence feeding of the fisherman's family and those close by [2].
Dynamite and cyanide
These are some of the most outright destructive practices in artisanal fishing. The issue it that the techniques are amazingly effective at catching massive numbers of fish very cheaply, which is very important for a poor artisanal fisherman who worries more about feeding his family in the here and now and not the damage he is causing for the future. Dynamite is most dangerous when used on coral reefs, for although the blast kills all the fish in the area ( or in some cases stuns the fish for the aquarium trade), allowing for massive quick profit, it also destroys the coral below. By destroying this slow growing habitat that the target species need to survive, you effectively remove the area of your target species in only a few catches.
Cyanide poisoning is used mainly in the live fish fisheries and capturing fish for the aquarium trade. The chemical sodium cyanide is injected into a target species den which temporarily stuns the fish allowing it to be easily captured. The issue is that the cyanide affects other non-target species and the coral itself, often killing them. Continued used of cyanide can be just as devastating as any other form of fishing, including dynamite [5].
Cyanide poisoning is used mainly in the live fish fisheries and capturing fish for the aquarium trade. The chemical sodium cyanide is injected into a target species den which temporarily stuns the fish allowing it to be easily captured. The issue is that the cyanide affects other non-target species and the coral itself, often killing them. Continued used of cyanide can be just as devastating as any other form of fishing, including dynamite [5].
General comparison to industrial fishing
A summary of comparisons between large scale (industrial) and small scale (artisanal) fisheries can be seen in figure 9.
_
The figure depicts that overall artisanal fisheries catch as
much fish that are actually eaten as food as the industrial company even though
they are so much smaller and have less money invested in them [4]. Not only that
but artisanal fisheries employ about 24 times more people, most in developing
countries which may help reduce poverty. Also, artisanal fisheries use less
than 1/7th of the fuel, even though they catch the same amount of food. The "annual catch reduced to fishmeal and oils" may need an explanation. Some fisheries target "trash" fish that typically are not used for human consumption. Instead they catch massive amounts of these fish and process them into fish food. Typically this fish food is used in aquaculture to feed fish that we like to eat, such as salmon and tuna. Aquaculture of these species was originally set up to alleviate some pressure from wild stocks, but as a result it is putting a new massive pressure on "trash" fish stocks, and since artisanal fisheries largely avoid this aspect entirely they also avoid all the issues associated with it. Lastly, due to the various practices used by artisanal
fisheries, they acquire hardly any bycatch when compared to the massive numbers of
non-target fish, seabirds, marine mammals, seaturtles, etc. that are killed by
industrial fisheries. For more info on comparisons see [10] and [11].
Management of artisanal fisheries
_
Management of artisanal fisheries is difficult to say the
least. Many artisanal fisheries are managed at a community level by laws or
common practices that have been established and are enforced based on the
interests of the people. For more information how community based management works and how some of these beliefs and practices are being used to improve more developed fisheries see: community fisheries management.Many artisanal fisheries feel that federal regulations
of their fisheries are unnecessary and that these regulations would just hamper
a process that is working perfectly fine on its own. For many artisanal fisheries the fisherman feel a sense of stewardship for their area of the sea. It is not just a way to make money, it is their very livelihood. As such, they often fell that they must protect it and undertake practices to best get what they need with as little negative impact as possible. But federal agencies have
the issue of accounting for artisanal fisheries in their industrial fishery
plans. As figure 9 shows quite clearly, artisanal fisheries make up about half
of the total amount of fish caught for food. So if fishery management groups
did not take artisanal fisheries into account there would likely be disastrous
consequences for the fish population stock.
That is not to say that all artisanal fisheries are perfect, far from it. Typically long standing subsistence artisanal fisheries who only fish to feed their families and neighbors pose little risk for most fish populations. But some fisheries have shifted to massive catches of target species for export to developed countries. An example of this would be the Mexican shark fishery that due to increase fishing pressure is seeing a shark population crash. Many groups are calling for immediate management of fisheries like this in fear of what might happen if they continue to go unregulated. But one of the largest issues with artisanal fisheries is due to how remote many of these fisheries can be. This remoteness not only makes it hard to get a clear idea of actual catch numbers, needed for proper fisheries management, but it makes it impractical if not impossible to enforce any of the management regulations if and when they are created. For more info on management see [3], [12], [13], and [14].
A relatively new research network has been established with a primary goal being to conduct research into many aspects of artisanal fisheries in order to more effectively manage them: http://artisanalfisheries.ucsd.edu/
That is not to say that all artisanal fisheries are perfect, far from it. Typically long standing subsistence artisanal fisheries who only fish to feed their families and neighbors pose little risk for most fish populations. But some fisheries have shifted to massive catches of target species for export to developed countries. An example of this would be the Mexican shark fishery that due to increase fishing pressure is seeing a shark population crash. Many groups are calling for immediate management of fisheries like this in fear of what might happen if they continue to go unregulated. But one of the largest issues with artisanal fisheries is due to how remote many of these fisheries can be. This remoteness not only makes it hard to get a clear idea of actual catch numbers, needed for proper fisheries management, but it makes it impractical if not impossible to enforce any of the management regulations if and when they are created. For more info on management see [3], [12], [13], and [14].
A relatively new research network has been established with a primary goal being to conduct research into many aspects of artisanal fisheries in order to more effectively manage them: http://artisanalfisheries.ucsd.edu/
Issue of bycatch in artisanal fisheries
If one had two pick the two biggest issues concerning most fisheries, artisanal and industrial, it would probably be overfishing and bycatch. While most management agencies try to account for both, typically more attention is paid to prevent overfishing as can be seen in the management section above. The easiest way to describe bycatch would be the capture of any species that the fisher is not specifically targeting and is typically discarded. Bycatch is accounted for in some fisheries, such as once a certain poundage of bycatch is reached that specific boat or in some cases the entire fishery is shut down. Plus, bycatch acts as an added cost due to the time and energy needed to remove the non-target species. With that prospective in mind, fishers typically try to reduce their bycatch by as much as possible. They do so by taking advantage of new fishing techniques and technology that has been shown to decrease their catch to bycatch ratios even if sometimes their catch amount might actually be less. This is because some types of technology allow non-target species to escape but as a result some of their target species may likewise escape. Consumers, however, are typically willing to pay more for fish caught using these more sustainable techniques so it may even out it the end.
An example of taking advantage of new technology by artisanal fisheries can bee seen here: http://cmbc.ucsd.edu/Research/student_research/fish-traps/
The issue of bycatch is found in all fisheries but it is often less of a concern in artisanal fisheries. This is largely due to the scale of artisanal fisheries. There is less fishing pressure, often using species specific techniques, in defined areas typically only hours from port [1]. Artisanal fisheries simply undergo more trips using safer techniques then their commercial counterparts who take massive trips using techniques designed for large catches at the expense of bycatch. Also, in many artisanal fisheries they feel a sense of stewardship of their sea and so enact practices to reduce their bycatch in order to protect their livelihood [12]. Figure 9 shows this idea quite clearly by the fact that even though artisanal fisheries catch just as much fish as industrial fisheries, due to these differences there is substantially less bycatch [4]. For a more thorough description of bycatch see this page: Bycatch
An example of taking advantage of new technology by artisanal fisheries can bee seen here: http://cmbc.ucsd.edu/Research/student_research/fish-traps/
The issue of bycatch is found in all fisheries but it is often less of a concern in artisanal fisheries. This is largely due to the scale of artisanal fisheries. There is less fishing pressure, often using species specific techniques, in defined areas typically only hours from port [1]. Artisanal fisheries simply undergo more trips using safer techniques then their commercial counterparts who take massive trips using techniques designed for large catches at the expense of bycatch. Also, in many artisanal fisheries they feel a sense of stewardship of their sea and so enact practices to reduce their bycatch in order to protect their livelihood [12]. Figure 9 shows this idea quite clearly by the fact that even though artisanal fisheries catch just as much fish as industrial fisheries, due to these differences there is substantially less bycatch [4]. For a more thorough description of bycatch see this page: Bycatch
Citations
_
Figures:
Figure 1 –
http://www.fao.org/fishery/topic/14753/en
Figure 2 –
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Trolling_illustration,_Historic_American_Engineering_Record.png
Figure 3 -
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Purse_seine_illustration,_Historic_American_Engineering_Record.png
Figure 4 -
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fish_and_Wildlife_Service_worker_on_boat_checking_gill_net_full_of_fish.jpg
Figure 5 –
Moreno CA, Arata JA, Rubilar P, Hucke-Gaete R, Robertson G (2006) Artisanal longline fisheries in Southern Chile: Lessons to be learned to avoid incidental seabird mortality. Biological Conservation 127: 27-36 doi 10.1016/j.biocon.2005.07.011
Figure 6 –
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Britannica_Dredge_and_Dredging_14.jpg
Figure 7 –
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%C4%90%C3%B3.jpg
Figure 8 –
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hawaiian_man_spear_fishing,_Hana,_Maui,_ca._1890.jpg
Figure 9 –
Jacquet J, Pauly D (2008) Funding priorities: Big barriers to small-scale fisheries. Conservation Biology 22: 832-835 doi 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00978.x
Figure 10 –
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Shrimp_bycatch.jpg
Youtube videos in order of appearance:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WocJJsn1T6A Davidmarier1. “Tuna fishing with cane poles.” Youtube. 26 Nov 2009. Web. 15 Nov 2011.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OX_tmx6hKGg Laruspalma. “Purse seining.” Youtube. 20 Nec 2007. Web. 15 Nov 2011.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jug88dsXQfg Portsblondie. “Lake Erie yellow perch gill nets out of Port Stanley.” Youtube. 7 May 2009. Web. 15 Nov 2011.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3HsKj7wO17g Longlinefishing. “Longline fishing - how it’s done.” Youtube. 8 Feb 2010. Web. 15 Nov 2011.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gKqM3hXwcRs Appleby1970. “Scallop dredging footage.” Youtube. 16 Jul 2007. Web. 15 Nov 2011.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ahcau6v_n0A Johntyman. “006 Checking fish traps at weir.” Youtube. 26 Jan 2010. Web. 15 Nov 2011.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2JS5c7fHMhU Zepeckis. “Cyanide flame angelfish.MPG.” Youtube. 26 Feb 2010. Web. 15 Nov 2011.
Cited works:
[1]
FAO. © 2005-2011. Fisheries and Aquaculture topics. Small-scale and artisanal fisheries. Topics Fact Sheets. Text by Jan Johnson. In: FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department [online]. Rome. Updated 27 May 2005. [Cited 19 November 2011]. http://www.fao.org/fishery/topic/14753/en
[2]
Atta-Mills J, Alder J, Sumaila UR (2004) The decline of a regional fishing nation: The case of Ghana and West Africa. Natural Resources Forum 28: 13-21 doi 10.1111/j.0165-0203.2004.00068.x
[3]
Cinner JE, McClanahan TR (2006) Socioeconomic factors that lead to overfishing in small-scale coral reef fisheries of Papua New Guinea. Environmental Conservation 33: 73-80 doi 10.1017/s0376892906002748
[4]
Jacquet J, Pauly D (2008) Funding priorities: Big barriers to small-scale fisheries. Conservation Biology 22: 832-835 doi 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00978.x
[5]
Mangi SC, Roberts CM (2006) Quantifying the environmental impacts of artisanal fishing gear on Kenya's coral reef ecosystems. Marine Pollution Bulletin 52: 1646-1660 doi 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2006.06.006
[6]
Goetze JS, Langlois TJ, Egli DP, Harvey ES (2011) Evidence of artisanal fishing impacts and depth refuge in assemblages of Fijian reef fish. Coral Reefs 30: 507-517 doi 10.1007/s00338-011-0732-8
[7]
D'Agrosa C, Lennert-Cody CE, Vidal O (2000) Vaquita bycatch in Mexico's artisanal gillnet fisheries: Driving a small population to extinction. Conservation Biology 14: 1110-1119 doi 10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.98191.x
[8]
Moreno CA, Arata JA, Rubilar P, Hucke-Gaete R, Robertson G (2006) Artisanal longline fisheries in Southern Chile: Lessons to be learned to avoid incidental seabird mortality. Biological Conservation 127: 27-36 doi 10.1016/j.biocon.2005.07.011
[9]
Narvarte M, Gonzalez R, Medina A, Soledad Avaca M (2011) Artisanal dredges as efficient and rationale harvesting gears in a Patagonian mussel fishery. Fisheries Research 111: 108-115 doi 10.1016/j.fishres.2011.07.002
[10]
Defeo O, Castilla JC (2005) More than one bag for the world fishery crisis and keys for co-management successes in selected artisanal Latin American shellfisheries. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 15: 265-283 doi 10.1007/s11160-005-4865-0
[11]
Orensanz JM, Parma AM, Jerez G, Barahona N, Montecinos M, Elias I (2005) What are the key elements for the sustainability of "S-fisheries"? Insights from South America. Bulletin of Marine Science 76: 527-556.
[12]
Allison EH, Ellis F (2001) The livelihoods approach and management of small-scale fisheries. Marine Policy 25: 377-388 doi 10.1016/s0308-597x(01)00023-9
[13]
Castilla JC, Fernandez M (1998) Small-scale benthic fisheries in Chile: On co-management and sustainable use of benthic invertebrates. Ecological Applications 8: S124-S132 doi 10.1890/1051-0761(1998)8[s124:sbfico]2.0.co;2
[14]
Freire J, Garcia-Allut A (2000) Socioeconomic and biological causes of management failures in European artisanal fisheries: the case of Galicia (NW Spain). Marine Policy 24: 375-384 doi 10.1016/s0308-597x(00)00013-0
Figure 1 –
http://www.fao.org/fishery/topic/14753/en
Figure 2 –
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Trolling_illustration,_Historic_American_Engineering_Record.png
Figure 3 -
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Purse_seine_illustration,_Historic_American_Engineering_Record.png
Figure 4 -
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fish_and_Wildlife_Service_worker_on_boat_checking_gill_net_full_of_fish.jpg
Figure 5 –
Moreno CA, Arata JA, Rubilar P, Hucke-Gaete R, Robertson G (2006) Artisanal longline fisheries in Southern Chile: Lessons to be learned to avoid incidental seabird mortality. Biological Conservation 127: 27-36 doi 10.1016/j.biocon.2005.07.011
Figure 6 –
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Britannica_Dredge_and_Dredging_14.jpg
Figure 7 –
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%C4%90%C3%B3.jpg
Figure 8 –
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hawaiian_man_spear_fishing,_Hana,_Maui,_ca._1890.jpg
Figure 9 –
Jacquet J, Pauly D (2008) Funding priorities: Big barriers to small-scale fisheries. Conservation Biology 22: 832-835 doi 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00978.x
Figure 10 –
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Shrimp_bycatch.jpg
Youtube videos in order of appearance:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WocJJsn1T6A Davidmarier1. “Tuna fishing with cane poles.” Youtube. 26 Nov 2009. Web. 15 Nov 2011.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OX_tmx6hKGg Laruspalma. “Purse seining.” Youtube. 20 Nec 2007. Web. 15 Nov 2011.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jug88dsXQfg Portsblondie. “Lake Erie yellow perch gill nets out of Port Stanley.” Youtube. 7 May 2009. Web. 15 Nov 2011.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3HsKj7wO17g Longlinefishing. “Longline fishing - how it’s done.” Youtube. 8 Feb 2010. Web. 15 Nov 2011.
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