Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing (IUU fishing)
I. What is IUU Fishing?
Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing, often called IUU Fishing, is made up of three different components, each with their own definitions. The defined meanings of each component were established in the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations within the "International Plan of Action to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing. (1)" In comprehensive terms,
By combining these three components together, you get one of the biggest threats to sustainable fisheries seen in present day.
- Illegal: Fishing activity that doesn't follow along with the national or international laws and rules relevant and applicable to the area in which it occurs.
- Unreported: Fishing activity that has not been reported or properly reported in an area that requires fishing to be reported.
- Unregulated: Fishing activity that is considered illegal but has no applicable regulations set forth or the vessel that conducts the fishing are vessels that are not able to be held regulated by the local and relevant regional fishery management organization (RFMO) due to the fact they they are flying a flag of a State that isn't involved with the RFMO (considered a Flag of Convenience) or isn't flying a flag at all.
By combining these three components together, you get one of the biggest threats to sustainable fisheries seen in present day.
II. Motivations for Conducting IUU Fishing
Economic Incentives:
In order to engage in IUU fishing, it must be economically profitable. High market value fish are purposely fished because they can outweigh the risk of being caught. Thus, as the market value of a particular fish increase, so does the chances of IUU fishing for that fish because the profit being made off of selling the fish increases. In many and most cases, fish that tend to be IUU fished have already diminished stocks or have high regulations upon catch quantities (i.e., the Patagonian toothfish), are of extremely high market value, and are of extremely high risk of being IUU fished (2,3).
The OECD conducted a study in 2004 publishing that are three different categories of economic incentive for conducting IUU Fishing:
Legal and Institutional Loopholes:
There are many ways in which IUU vessels work around current and applicable laws and regulations, including:
Social Contributions:
Many of the crews that conduct IUU fishing are recruited from countries that are so poor that they have no other employment opportunity. Thus, a large supply of cheap labor keeps cost down, and so does management of these crews. Since these crews are just looking for a source of income, they are willing to work under poor conditions, thus keeping management costs down. Therefore, with high market prices for the particular fish combined with poor management and crew costs, the profit margin continues to increase for the owners of IUU fishing vessels (2,4).
In order to engage in IUU fishing, it must be economically profitable. High market value fish are purposely fished because they can outweigh the risk of being caught. Thus, as the market value of a particular fish increase, so does the chances of IUU fishing for that fish because the profit being made off of selling the fish increases. In many and most cases, fish that tend to be IUU fished have already diminished stocks or have high regulations upon catch quantities (i.e., the Patagonian toothfish), are of extremely high market value, and are of extremely high risk of being IUU fished (2,3).
The OECD conducted a study in 2004 publishing that are three different categories of economic incentive for conducting IUU Fishing:
- Overcapacity: Restrictions placed on fishing that do not relate to the fishing capacity of a particular member or too small a share given of Total Allowable Catches (TAC) to a particular member.
- Subsidies: If subsidies that are granted for increasing or improving current vessel fishing capacity or building new vessels in particular areas in which fishing is already under strict regulations increase the risk of overcapacity incentives to IUU fish, and should thus be removed.
- Ineffective Management: Enforcement is necessary when establishing regulations, and any poorly enforced areas are subject to become a source of IUU fishing. Appropriate inspections and continued Monitoring, Control and Surveillance (MCS) are necessary (4).
Legal and Institutional Loopholes:
There are many ways in which IUU vessels work around current and applicable laws and regulations, including:
- Fishing in areas that aren't under RMFO's jurisdictions: Fishing in particular areas of the High Seas are usually beyond the reach of regulations set forth by RMFO's (2).
- Flags of Convenience (FOC): Citizens that are members of the relevant RMFO register and flag their vessels from a foreign State that do not have certain regulations or are members of the RMFO in place for the type of fishing to be conducted (4). Using these flags, or sometimes no flag at all, vessels do not consider themselves under the jurisdiction of RMFO's and tend to conduct fishing in any particular manner, and are responsible for the majority of IUU fishing (2).
- Transship: Some vessels will transfer product while out at sea without verifying that it hasn't been taken by IUU fishing activity (3).
- Tax Havens: Many IUU fishing vessel operators and owners use certain banking insitutions to conceal their true identity to avoid paying fines or original registration of their vessels. This reduces the risks of getting caught and also minimizes costs (4).
Social Contributions:
Many of the crews that conduct IUU fishing are recruited from countries that are so poor that they have no other employment opportunity. Thus, a large supply of cheap labor keeps cost down, and so does management of these crews. Since these crews are just looking for a source of income, they are willing to work under poor conditions, thus keeping management costs down. Therefore, with high market prices for the particular fish combined with poor management and crew costs, the profit margin continues to increase for the owners of IUU fishing vessels (2,4).
III. The Impact of IUU Fishing
[2] Seabird swarms around a South African fishing vessel.
Illegal, unreported and unregulated has been known to cause various negative impacts, including:
Economic Impacts
The economic impacts of IUU fishing are detrimental to the market. It is estimated by MRAG and and the Fisheries Centre at the University of British Columbia that the illegal fishing results in approximately USD10-23 billion annually from the excessive quantites of catch estimated at 11.06-25.91 million tonnes of fish (5). IUU fishing doesn't only impact the import markets, but also the export markets as it takes away from exportation of fish caught under relevant regulation.
Environmental and Ecological Impacts
It has been previously noted that the fish that are usually caught in IUU fishing is that with already diminished stocks. Thus, it is important to note that illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing directly impacts the sustainability of these fish populations and rebuilding of stocks for the future of the fisheries. It has been estimated by the FAO that approximately 47-50 percent of marine fish stocks are already being fully exploited, while 15-18 percent are overexploited, and 10 percent of marine fish stocks are already depleted (6) This goes with noting that as stocks decrease, usually market value increases, and so does profitability of IUU fishing, which further depletes these stocks.
IUU fishing is usually closely associated with the amount of bycatch that occurs in the process of this type of fishing activity. This is due to the fact that IUU fishers do not follow regulations on equipment and have a tendancy to use equipment that is not up to standard with current regulations. Therefore there is an abundant amount of bycatch of various types, especially in that of IUU fishing of the Patagonian toothfish through the use of longlining. The most common and abundant kind of bycatch of IUU fishing for the Patagonian toothfish are various seabirds, which migrate through the Southern Ocean. Other kinds of bycatch include migratory oceanic sharks, skates, rays and grenadiers. There has been reports of occasional mortalities of fur and elephant seals and some small whales or dolphins (2,7). Many types of IUU fishing are not only destructive to the food webs of the ecosystem, but are also destructive to the environment in which the fishing occurs, such as dynamite fishing or poison fishing of coral reefs (2).
Social Impacts
IUU fishing is completely detrimental to society, as it continues to corrupt the fishing that is caught by those who conduct under defined regulations. IUU fishing entails many negative social impacts, most evident is the impact upon the crew that conducts the IUU fishing. It causes displacement of fishers who do follow the regulations due to the inability of competing with the product caught through IUU fishing. It also causes some crews to operate in poor working conditions as these crews are usually hired in areas of extreme poverty and will do anything for income, especially in the case of smaller scale fisheries and artisinal fisheries (2).
Economic Impacts
The economic impacts of IUU fishing are detrimental to the market. It is estimated by MRAG and and the Fisheries Centre at the University of British Columbia that the illegal fishing results in approximately USD10-23 billion annually from the excessive quantites of catch estimated at 11.06-25.91 million tonnes of fish (5). IUU fishing doesn't only impact the import markets, but also the export markets as it takes away from exportation of fish caught under relevant regulation.
Environmental and Ecological Impacts
It has been previously noted that the fish that are usually caught in IUU fishing is that with already diminished stocks. Thus, it is important to note that illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing directly impacts the sustainability of these fish populations and rebuilding of stocks for the future of the fisheries. It has been estimated by the FAO that approximately 47-50 percent of marine fish stocks are already being fully exploited, while 15-18 percent are overexploited, and 10 percent of marine fish stocks are already depleted (6) This goes with noting that as stocks decrease, usually market value increases, and so does profitability of IUU fishing, which further depletes these stocks.
IUU fishing is usually closely associated with the amount of bycatch that occurs in the process of this type of fishing activity. This is due to the fact that IUU fishers do not follow regulations on equipment and have a tendancy to use equipment that is not up to standard with current regulations. Therefore there is an abundant amount of bycatch of various types, especially in that of IUU fishing of the Patagonian toothfish through the use of longlining. The most common and abundant kind of bycatch of IUU fishing for the Patagonian toothfish are various seabirds, which migrate through the Southern Ocean. Other kinds of bycatch include migratory oceanic sharks, skates, rays and grenadiers. There has been reports of occasional mortalities of fur and elephant seals and some small whales or dolphins (2,7). Many types of IUU fishing are not only destructive to the food webs of the ecosystem, but are also destructive to the environment in which the fishing occurs, such as dynamite fishing or poison fishing of coral reefs (2).
Social Impacts
IUU fishing is completely detrimental to society, as it continues to corrupt the fishing that is caught by those who conduct under defined regulations. IUU fishing entails many negative social impacts, most evident is the impact upon the crew that conducts the IUU fishing. It causes displacement of fishers who do follow the regulations due to the inability of competing with the product caught through IUU fishing. It also causes some crews to operate in poor working conditions as these crews are usually hired in areas of extreme poverty and will do anything for income, especially in the case of smaller scale fisheries and artisinal fisheries (2).
IV. What Efforts are Being Made to Prevent IUU Fishing on an International Level?
[3] Greenpeace, 2006
Fighting against Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing has been difficult since the incentives and motivations to conduct in such activities can potentially outweigh the risks of being caught. As IUU Fishing has finally become known as a "major international issue" (2), more attention has been focused on attempting to prevent the actions of all three components of IUU fishing. There have been several international efforts in combating IUU fishing. A detailed timeline through December 2003 of International Developments of IUU Fishing Issues is available through the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)'s website.
One of the biggest accomplishments in combating illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing has come from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations:
International Plan of Action to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing (1)
The International Plan of Action to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing (IPOA-IUU) is a voluntary act that is meant to be used to give comprehensive and transparent measures to continue along with other current regulations, laws and rules. The IPOA-IUU describes that it should be implemented by all States or RFMO's in order to prevent, deter and eliminate IUU fishing within all catch fisheries as it attempts to address all issues including: economic, environmental and social. The IPOA-IUU pushes for more effective implementation and use of monitoring, control and surveillance plans (MCS) by those who use the IPOA-IUU, especially with the use of Vessel Monitoring Systems when possible. The IPOA-IUU describes in great deal the responsibilities of the States, including: Flag States, Coastal States and Port States. It also describes the responsibilities for the international market upon compliance with this act.
Another good example of continued effort to combat IUU fishing is seen in the CCAMLR as it struggles to fight against the illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing of the Patagonian toothfish.
More recent developments include:
Management Reauthorization Act of 2006
- 2009: Agreement on Port State Measures to
Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported
and Unregulated Fishing
- September 2011: The European Union and the
United States signed a bilateral agreement to
strengthen cooperation in combating against IUU
fishing
- Greenpeace International Blacklist
- IATTC- IUU Vessel List
- ICCAT- IUU Vessel List
- IOTC- IUU Vessel List
- NAFO IUU List
- NEAFC IUU B List
One of the biggest accomplishments in combating illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing has come from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations:
International Plan of Action to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing (1)
The International Plan of Action to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing (IPOA-IUU) is a voluntary act that is meant to be used to give comprehensive and transparent measures to continue along with other current regulations, laws and rules. The IPOA-IUU describes that it should be implemented by all States or RFMO's in order to prevent, deter and eliminate IUU fishing within all catch fisheries as it attempts to address all issues including: economic, environmental and social. The IPOA-IUU pushes for more effective implementation and use of monitoring, control and surveillance plans (MCS) by those who use the IPOA-IUU, especially with the use of Vessel Monitoring Systems when possible. The IPOA-IUU describes in great deal the responsibilities of the States, including: Flag States, Coastal States and Port States. It also describes the responsibilities for the international market upon compliance with this act.
Another good example of continued effort to combat IUU fishing is seen in the CCAMLR as it struggles to fight against the illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing of the Patagonian toothfish.
More recent developments include:
- Continued implementation of newer policies by various countries, such as:
Management Reauthorization Act of 2006
- 2009: Agreement on Port State Measures to
Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported
and Unregulated Fishing
- September 2011: The European Union and the
United States signed a bilateral agreement to
strengthen cooperation in combating against IUU
fishing
- Publicly available IUU Fishing Vessel Lists, such as:
- Greenpeace International Blacklist
- IATTC- IUU Vessel List
- ICCAT- IUU Vessel List
- IOTC- IUU Vessel List
- NAFO IUU List
- NEAFC IUU B List
- Sustainable Seafood Certifications: These certifications ensure that the seafood product is caught within applicable regulations in an attempt to maintain a sustainable fishery. Seafood consumers have started to select products with these certifications, like the MSC ecolabel that not only ensures good management practices but also good fishing practices that don't undermine the sustainability of the fishery.
V. Informational Videos
Overview of Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (©FAO www.fao.org), 2009 http://www.fao.org/fishery/ipoa-iuu/en
| Fisheries: preserving stocks, keeping jobs ,
© OECD, 2010, http://www.oecd.org/document/63/0,3746,en_21571361_37705603_44427455_1_1_1_1,00.html |
VI. References
(1) FAO, International Plan of Action to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing, adopted at the Twenty-fourth Session of COFI, Rome, Italy on 23 June 2001 at the 120th Session of the FAO Council
(2) Palma, M., Tsamenyi, M., and Edeson W. Promoting Sustainable Fisheries: The International Legal and Policy Framework to Combat Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing. Vol. 6. Leiden, The Netherlands: Koninkijke Brill NV, 2010. 1-48. Print.
(3) Lack, M. and Sant, G. "Patagonian Toothfish: Are Conservation and Trade Measures Working?" TRAFFIC Bulletin, 19, no.1 (2001): 15-38, available at traffic. org, accessed 30 November 2011
(4) Le Gallic, B., Cox, A. "An economic analysis of illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing: Kev drivers and possible solutions." Marine Policy 30, 689 (Nov, 2006).
(5) MRAG and Fisheries Ecosystems Restoration Research, Fisheries Centre, University of British Colubia. "The Global Extent of IUU Fishing, Final Report, available at www.illegal-fishing.info/uploads/MRAGExtentGlobalIllegalFishing.pdf, accessed 30 November 2011
(6) FAO, New International Plan of Action Targets Illegal, Unregulated and Unreported Fishing, (Rome, Italy, 2001), available at www.fao.org/WAICENT/OIS/PRES/NE/PRESSENG/2001/pren0111.htm., accessed on 30 November 2011.
(7) Kock, K. H., Reid, K., Croxall, J., Nicol, S. "Fisheries in the Southern Ocean: an ecosystem approach. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences" 362, 2333 (Dec, 2007).
(2) Palma, M., Tsamenyi, M., and Edeson W. Promoting Sustainable Fisheries: The International Legal and Policy Framework to Combat Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing. Vol. 6. Leiden, The Netherlands: Koninkijke Brill NV, 2010. 1-48. Print.
(3) Lack, M. and Sant, G. "Patagonian Toothfish: Are Conservation and Trade Measures Working?" TRAFFIC Bulletin, 19, no.1 (2001): 15-38, available at traffic. org, accessed 30 November 2011
(4) Le Gallic, B., Cox, A. "An economic analysis of illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing: Kev drivers and possible solutions." Marine Policy 30, 689 (Nov, 2006).
(5) MRAG and Fisheries Ecosystems Restoration Research, Fisheries Centre, University of British Colubia. "The Global Extent of IUU Fishing, Final Report, available at www.illegal-fishing.info/uploads/MRAGExtentGlobalIllegalFishing.pdf, accessed 30 November 2011
(6) FAO, New International Plan of Action Targets Illegal, Unregulated and Unreported Fishing, (Rome, Italy, 2001), available at www.fao.org/WAICENT/OIS/PRES/NE/PRESSENG/2001/pren0111.htm., accessed on 30 November 2011.
(7) Kock, K. H., Reid, K., Croxall, J., Nicol, S. "Fisheries in the Southern Ocean: an ecosystem approach. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences" 362, 2333 (Dec, 2007).
Image Sources
In order of appearance:
[1] Stop Illegal Fishing Poster: Used with permission from www.celsias.com., http://www.celsias.co.nz/article/chinas-fisheries-must-adapt-meet-eu-regulations/
[2] Seabird bycatch in southern African pelagic and demersal longline fisheries. Photography by Luke Finley. http://www.acap.aq/2009-news-archive/seabird-bycatch-in-southern-african-pelagic-and-demersal-longline-fisheries
[3] Greenpeace activists paint 'Stolen Fish' and occupy the illegal cargo vessel Binar 4 full of fish taken from Guinean waters to prevent unloading. Photo source: Greenpeace, 2006, http://photo.greenpeace.org/C.aspx?VP3=ViewBox_VPage&VBID=27MZV8LC3ASM&IT=ZoomImageTemplate01_VForm&PN=296&CT=Search
[1] Stop Illegal Fishing Poster: Used with permission from www.celsias.com., http://www.celsias.co.nz/article/chinas-fisheries-must-adapt-meet-eu-regulations/
[2] Seabird bycatch in southern African pelagic and demersal longline fisheries. Photography by Luke Finley. http://www.acap.aq/2009-news-archive/seabird-bycatch-in-southern-african-pelagic-and-demersal-longline-fisheries
[3] Greenpeace activists paint 'Stolen Fish' and occupy the illegal cargo vessel Binar 4 full of fish taken from Guinean waters to prevent unloading. Photo source: Greenpeace, 2006, http://photo.greenpeace.org/C.aspx?VP3=ViewBox_VPage&VBID=27MZV8LC3ASM&IT=ZoomImageTemplate01_VForm&PN=296&CT=Search