Community-Based Fisheries Management
Figure [1]. Fishing boats in Charleston Harbor, OR
-Photo: by robbie mcnulty
Community-Based Fisheries Management (CBFM), gives coastal communities and fisherman primary responsibility for managing their costal resources (2). This form of management is more localized and, therefore, the management techniques can take many different forms depending on regional differences and the nuances of different fisheries. For this reason, CBFM is not defined by one approach or set of guidelines that dictate its implementation. Instead CBFM centers around the premise that community collaboration, and local participation can be an extremely productive and accurate means of managing, monitoring, and maintaining coastal resources (3). The basic principles, ethics, and ideas maintained by CBFM are universally applicable to many different situations.
~Table of Contents~
Introduction
Figure [2]. Cape Arago, OR at sunset
-Photo by: robbie mcnulty
Fisheries are a basic and important economic resource in many areas. Like most all natural resources, general management methods must be applied to provide for the long-term interests of all groups of resource users/stakeholders, that might be affected by exploitation of the resource in addition to maintaining the resource itself. The task of managing fisheries is very complex; however, new strategies like Community-Based Fisheries Management (CBFM) which take a more regional and integrated management approach, can be more productive than past centralized management methods. CBFM achieves such productivity by combining scientific research with community involvement and Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK) to create monitoring programs specific to local areas.
~ What does CBFM do? ~
CBFM moves the focus of ocean resource management to individual areas/fishing communities, rather than managing fisheries on a coast wide scale. Currently fisheries are managed in many areas by a centralized or blanket method administered by a top-down approach from external managers. This approach has little involvement of the local people, that are most affected by the managed resource (3). By empowering local interests, as in CBFM, local relationships may be accentuated that larger scale management strategies might not include. In the U.S. management of fisheries historically has been very centralized, originating from larger state or government regulations which tend to control the amount of resource available for harvest by the user (2). These older management methods also predominantly focus on “single species modeling” while newer forms of management, such as CBFM, incorporate much more of an ecosystem based management approach.
CBFM proposes that resource users (fisherman) and resource communities (coastal communities), should have the primary role in deciding how the resources of that community/area are managed. As stated in the Community Fisheries Management Handbook by Jennifer Graham:
“Fishermen and coastal communities, being the most dependent on coastal and marine resources, should have a large role in deciding how these resources should be managed. This idea fits within an emerging understanding that management decisions of all sorts are often best made at the most local level possible.” (2)
CBFM proposes that resource users (fisherman) and resource communities (coastal communities), should have the primary role in deciding how the resources of that community/area are managed. As stated in the Community Fisheries Management Handbook by Jennifer Graham:
“Fishermen and coastal communities, being the most dependent on coastal and marine resources, should have a large role in deciding how these resources should be managed. This idea fits within an emerging understanding that management decisions of all sorts are often best made at the most local level possible.” (2)
Scenario Specific Management
While CBFM focuses on giving primary responsibility to the local community, it is important to note that CBFM cannot take place in every scenario. It takes willingness, cooperation, involvement, and flexibility from community members to work together for the collective good. It is important that each stakeholder consider their decisions as they apply to the whole community and the health of the costal resources. This collective responsibility for the long term well being of the natural resources depends on a type of responsible self governance, dictated not by the achievement of maximum profits or harvest, but instead by promoting a stewardship and conservation ethic (2). CBFM seeks the conservation and preservation of ecosystem health, combined with the sustainable use of these local resources as seen fit by the community members.
Points of focus for CBFM
- is a uniquely applied and flexible management strategy specific for most every situation.
- depends on open, ongoing communication within the whole community.
- utilizes the large knowledge base of fishermen who already have most of the tools for good local monitoring and research.
- requires patience, working toward long term rather than short term goals.
- removes the competitive spirit out of the fisheries and focuses the community on working for sustainability.
NOTE:
*** It is suggested to watch the media displayed throughout this website in order from top to bottom. It is also recommended that links within in the glossary be used for locating the meaning of various terms & vocabulary used throughout fisheries management.***
*** It is suggested to watch the media displayed throughout this website in order from top to bottom. It is also recommended that links within in the glossary be used for locating the meaning of various terms & vocabulary used throughout fisheries management.***
History
Figure [3]. Fisherman in Chad
Successful community based approaches to managing our natural resources have been around for quite some time. Even in aboriginal cultures there is most always some form of management system in place to prevent the historic “tragedy of the commons” scenario. These traditional management systems are culturally accepted and do not alienate the people that depend on that resource. In some cases these forms of management have even proven to benefit the ecosystems and provide sustainable resources for the community, preventing the depletion of a “common pool resource” (9).
Fisheries are a classic example of the failure to have good management strategies for common resources, a tragedy of the commons scenario, because it involves harvesting a resource that has huge economic value. Overfishing is evidence of a few individual short term interests conflicting with the long term interests of the common good. Overfishing is also evidence for lack of good management. Since good management is dependent on good communication and shared information, it is critical to have that information available. In many situations good information cost money to collect, therefore, it makes sense that societies that can not or will not pay for that information will suffer from inherently poor management in those situations.
Fisheries are a classic example of the failure to have good management strategies for common resources, a tragedy of the commons scenario, because it involves harvesting a resource that has huge economic value. Overfishing is evidence of a few individual short term interests conflicting with the long term interests of the common good. Overfishing is also evidence for lack of good management. Since good management is dependent on good communication and shared information, it is critical to have that information available. In many situations good information cost money to collect, therefore, it makes sense that societies that can not or will not pay for that information will suffer from inherently poor management in those situations.
- Two case studies discussed later in this web site illustrate very successful community based management strategies.
Background
CBFM has become very popular in developing countries due to the need for protecting forests from large-scale forestry operations and traditional fishing grounds from industrial fishing vessels (2). Communities are organizing themselves to form larger organizations to manage local resources and fight for their collective rights.
Figure [4]. Fisherman with first harvest
-photo by: ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies/Marine Photobank.
All around the world communities are managing forests, watersheds, fisheries, and communal irrigation systems through a group of approaches called “community-based natural resource management” or CBNRM (2)." Protecting resources is not a new idea. It has been done for thousands of years, even in the marine environment. Today, however, with increased competition and pressure on dwindling resources, applying these ideas of community-based fisheries management to our oceans is considered a pioneering, innovative idea and has seen only limited use in a select few U.S. fishing communities.
US. Fisheries Management Scenario
Figure [5]. NOAA headquarters silver spring, MD
-Photo by: robbie mcnulty
Fisheries are managed mainly at the national level by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s National Marine Fisheries Service, also referred to as NMFS or NOAA fisheries. NOAA manages all U.S fisheries under the Magnuson-Steven Fishery Conservation and Management Act. This act was first set into place in 1976 in response to foreign dominated fishing in U.S waters. The U.S. wanted to bolster its domestic fishing fleet to take advantage of its offshore natural resources, but it first needed some legislative rules for management of this new resource. In order to exclude foreign vessels from the near shore fisheries, this act also established the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), which stretches 200 nautical miles off shore.
Figure [6]. U.S. exclusive economic zone
In initiating its domestic fishing fleet the U.S. government gave out large loans to fisherman, but as a result of this large overcapitalization in the fisheries, the government directly contributed to drastic overharvest and overfishing. This overharvest forced the reauthorization of the Magnuson-Stevens Act in 1996. In this reauthorization the act gained the addition of the “Conservation and Management” title and recognized the collapse of the Atlantic Cod fishery and the federal buy back from boat owners that followed that fisheries collapse. The act was again reauthorized in 2007.
To help specify and focus management down to a regional scale, the Magnuson- Stevens act set up regional fisheries councils. The Pacific Fisheries Management Council includes Washington, Oregon, and California. The management of these regional councils encompasses all waters from 3mi offshore all the way to the extent of the Exclusive Economic Zone, and they manage everything from ground fish to salmon stocks. To be effective, however, management approaches need to be more specified and to have more local research, monitoring and involvement, consistent with the increase in popularity of CBFM.
NOAA Fisheries management is based on maximum sustainable yield from the fishery, with possible modifications by any relevant, social, economic, or ecological factors (8). There are many factors that contribute to variability within this model. The systems are so complex that having enough data to manage fisheries with perfect certainty is nearly impossible. Even with knowledge about this variability, the use and practice of a general “precautionary principle”, to error on the low side of harvest quotas is very uncommon. The “ratchet effect” in which scientific models predict larger than normal recruitment rates or something indicating larger stock sizes so catch quotas are increased is a much more common practice, In these scenarios a ratchet down effect is never seen. Due to a combination of the practices mentioned above and the known variability of such systems, communities often experience overfishing.
NOAA Fisheries management is based on maximum sustainable yield from the fishery, with possible modifications by any relevant, social, economic, or ecological factors (8). There are many factors that contribute to variability within this model. The systems are so complex that having enough data to manage fisheries with perfect certainty is nearly impossible. Even with knowledge about this variability, the use and practice of a general “precautionary principle”, to error on the low side of harvest quotas is very uncommon. The “ratchet effect” in which scientific models predict larger than normal recruitment rates or something indicating larger stock sizes so catch quotas are increased is a much more common practice, In these scenarios a ratchet down effect is never seen. Due to a combination of the practices mentioned above and the known variability of such systems, communities often experience overfishing.
Management Acpects
Specific aspects covering community based fisheries management activities are important when determining functions for management. Table 1 below, shows examples of such functions (boxed in red) and adjacent to these management functions are the parties who are generally responsible for them.
"View fish harvesters as embedded in webs of relations, or ‘networks,’ that include not only the surrounding bio-physical environment, but also such things as management regulations, kinship ties, peer pressure, social support mechanisms, and the global seafood market (6)."
"View fish harvesters as embedded in webs of relations, or ‘networks,’ that include not only the surrounding bio-physical environment, but also such things as management regulations, kinship ties, peer pressure, social support mechanisms, and the global seafood market (6)."
Table [1] Examples of Management Functions currently shared between government and community. As modified from Community Fisheries Management Handbook.
Other Management Strategies
Figure [7]. Women in fisheries, Bangladesh
Community-based fisheries management is one alternative to both entirely centralized management, and to current trends towards management schemes like ITQ’s and Catchshare programs. The latter can allow for the possible privatization of a fishery and can also “squeeze small scale and part-time fishermen out of the fishery” (12). Exclusion of small fisherman could take place by an industry or individual purchasing large amounts of catch shares and consequently controlling a large portion of the total allowable catch.
- ECOSYSTEM BASED MANAGEMENT – This approachcenters management decisions around the larger idea of ecosystems and all of the components interacting to function as resilient andhealthy ecosystems. This management technique was recently adopted by the U.S National Ocean Council which was created by an executive order from President Obama in 2010.
Complications
There are many hurdles to address when implementing new management approaches such as community based fisheries management. Procedures that are necessary for legitimacy and credit among the scientific community and higher management, can pose a barrier for fisherman who lack the quantitative “hard data” about their observations. This has limited the amount of information that fisherman feel they can bring to the table, (10) because fishermen’s knowledge is largely qualitative (9)
Many factors dictate the feasibility and productivity involved in integrating CBFM into specific communities. Some factors include: size of the population in that community, societal values, socioeconomic relations, scale of the fishing being done (industrial vs. inshore or artisanal fisheries), large economic incentives, different management techniques required for highly mobile species (9), limited funding for CBFM organizations, and governmental willingness in allowing more control to come from communities. All off these factors and many more can affect whether an idea for CBFM even gets off the ground.
Many factors dictate the feasibility and productivity involved in integrating CBFM into specific communities. Some factors include: size of the population in that community, societal values, socioeconomic relations, scale of the fishing being done (industrial vs. inshore or artisanal fisheries), large economic incentives, different management techniques required for highly mobile species (9), limited funding for CBFM organizations, and governmental willingness in allowing more control to come from communities. All off these factors and many more can affect whether an idea for CBFM even gets off the ground.
Case Studies
~ Caleta Cooperatives in Chile ~
Dr. Juan Carlos Castilla is an important name in the scientific community, due to his level of experience in marine special planning, ecosystem ecology, fisheries rights, as well as management cooperatives. He has spearheaded numerous research and monitoring projects in Chile. Over the years his team has focused on documenting ongoing trends in the populations of Chilean abalone (Concholepas concholepas), sea urchins, and keyhole limpets as numbers rise, plateau and fall (11).
As said by Dr. Juan Carlos Castilla “ The important thing is to know these trends over a long time, particularly if you want to give good fishing or management advice to people. If you know the rate that the populations increase, when they peak, and when they start to descend, you can give advice on when is the right time for extracting resources.” (11)
~ Port Orford, OR ~
Port Orford, Oregon is a small fishing community in the Pacific Northwest with a small population of about 1,200. Here the general frustration with regional and state management has led to the establishment of one of the region’s and even possibly the nation’s most positive examples for community-based fisheries management. is the local fishery is managed and self-governed on the level of community, which is a new and emerging idea for marine resource management. This type of management is accomplished through the establishment of community run organizations that oversee the local decision-making process and management techniques. For Port Orford, the POORT (Port Orford Ocean Resource Team) non–profit organization is exactly that. POORT is run by a board of community members whose main mission is:
“to ensure the long-term sustainability of Port Orford’s ocean resources and the community that depends on them by uniting science, education, local expertise and conservation.” (7)
“to ensure the long-term sustainability of Port Orford’s ocean resources and the community that depends on them by uniting science, education, local expertise and conservation.” (7)
These community based methods of management are not meant to be a substitute for present management provided by the state, and other higher levels, but instead CBFM aids and complements existing state and federal management structures (3)
The city of Port Orford is an excellent example showing that CBFM works; that community effort, along with a dedication to main access to natural resources can result in sustainable exploitation of the marine resources. CBFM such as that taking place in Port Orford not only has the potential to create more jobs for communities, but it can also help community members feel innately connected to their environment and that resource through local participation.
Their research & community monitoring in action
POORT Executive Director: Leesa Cobb
Email: [email protected]
Their research & community monitoring in action
POORT Executive Director: Leesa Cobb
Email: [email protected]
Summary
Given the fact that our marine biome makes up over 70 percent of our planet, it seems odd that governmental agencies might hesitate to spend money, allocate resources, or even entertain simple ideas that could change the way we manage our oceans.
We all must be critical thinkers in how we go about our daily choices and decisions. Practices and choices by seafood consumers can have a huge impact. In the end consumers contribute largely to how their seafood was caught, and the sustainable management practices that went into harvesting that dinner. It is also important that we continue to be critical thinkers as we make more complex decisions for future exploitation of natural resources in our oceans.
The accumulation of programs, organizations, and CBNRM projects exhibited in these case studies can create larger movements of social change, rooted in each and every community and community member who can now feel an invested interest in their area. Whether it be through the community monitoring programs, outreach events, participation in the council, or some other involvement, community based management strategies like CBFM are important in connecting people in all communities to their environment. Enforcement is hard in most scenarios but community management also engages neighbor to neighbor regulation and an ethic and value system which proliferates through generations. Marine reserves become become seen as stewardship research areas and enforcement is seen as your neighbors. In essence simple changes like this are what drive such local scale involvement and ultimately contribute to productive management techniques like CBFM.
News
Figure [8]. Senator Barbara Boxer
~ Senators Call for Flexibility to Implement Policies That Address ~ Needs of Local Communities
On the 3rd of November, 2011 Senators Lisa Murkowski (R-AK), John Kerry (D-MA), Ron Wyden (D-OR), Jeff Merkley (D-OR), Mark Begich (D-AK), Mike Thompson (D-CA) and Peter DeFazio (D-OR), along with senator Barbra boxer (D-CA), came together to ask for the aid of NOAA’s National Marine Fisheries Service’s in determining the best ways to address managing the unique characteristics and individual needs of coastal fishing communities. As was said in the senator’s letter:
“Fishing is an important economic driver in many of our nation’s coastal communities, and protecting this resource is even more essential now than ever as our nation struggles to rebound from the economic downturn. We ask that NMFS provide the necessary guidance during the implementation of its Catch Share Policy to ensure a vibrant future for our local fishing economies.”
Because fisheries cannot be managed by a “one size fits all approach”, the senators stressed a few potential options for NFMS, (1-4 below) that would help the Regional Fisheries Management Council’s (RFMC) support local fishing communities as they adapt to catch share programs:
“1. Strategies for the RFMCs to involve fishing communities at an early stage in the decision-making process to determine if catch shares and/or community associations are appropriate and ensure that the diverse needs of different communities are addressed.
2. Suggested approaches for the development of community associations or other mechanisms to retain local jobs and fishing heritage in traditional fishing-dependent communities.
3. Mechanisms for monitoring the economic and environmental impacts of catch shares following their implementation, so that best practices can be identified and adjustments can be made as needed.
4. Cost-effective monitoring techniques (such as vessel monitoring systems combined with video monitoring) to help smaller-scale fishermen adjust to the monitoring requirements of catch shares.”
The full letter can be seen at: http://boxer.senate.gov/en/press/releases/110311b.cfm
“Fishing is an important economic driver in many of our nation’s coastal communities, and protecting this resource is even more essential now than ever as our nation struggles to rebound from the economic downturn. We ask that NMFS provide the necessary guidance during the implementation of its Catch Share Policy to ensure a vibrant future for our local fishing economies.”
Because fisheries cannot be managed by a “one size fits all approach”, the senators stressed a few potential options for NFMS, (1-4 below) that would help the Regional Fisheries Management Council’s (RFMC) support local fishing communities as they adapt to catch share programs:
“1. Strategies for the RFMCs to involve fishing communities at an early stage in the decision-making process to determine if catch shares and/or community associations are appropriate and ensure that the diverse needs of different communities are addressed.
2. Suggested approaches for the development of community associations or other mechanisms to retain local jobs and fishing heritage in traditional fishing-dependent communities.
3. Mechanisms for monitoring the economic and environmental impacts of catch shares following their implementation, so that best practices can be identified and adjustments can be made as needed.
4. Cost-effective monitoring techniques (such as vessel monitoring systems combined with video monitoring) to help smaller-scale fishermen adjust to the monitoring requirements of catch shares.”
The full letter can be seen at: http://boxer.senate.gov/en/press/releases/110311b.cfm
~ July 20, 2010 – creation of the National Ocean Council ~
President Barrack Obama issued an executive order to form a National Ocean Council and implement new policy: Adoption of a National Ocean policy. This policy calls for marine management that is “ecosystem based and promotes the following:
“guiding principles for management decisions and actions toward achieving the vision of “an America whose stewardship ensures that the ocean, our coasts, and the Great Lakes are healthy and resilient, safe and productive, and understood and treasured so as to promote the well-being, prosperity, and security of present and future generations.”
Link to National Ocean Council: http://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/eop/oceans
“guiding principles for management decisions and actions toward achieving the vision of “an America whose stewardship ensures that the ocean, our coasts, and the Great Lakes are healthy and resilient, safe and productive, and understood and treasured so as to promote the well-being, prosperity, and security of present and future generations.”
Link to National Ocean Council: http://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/eop/oceans
Higher Management Connecting with Communities for Positive Outcomes
NOAA’s National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) represents the national level for most all of fisheries management within the United States. It might seem like such a management system would be too disconnected from the local communities. The argument from many smaller inshore fishing communities is that this is a less productive way to manage fisheries which can be so different from area to area. However NOAA works very hard to breach that disconnect. With the help of Regional Management Councils, NOAA can gain more insight on gear modifications, managing techniques, and perspectives from the community.
“NOAA's Fisheries Service is committed to implementing conservation and management measures for living marine resources” (8)
“NOAA's Fisheries Service is committed to implementing conservation and management measures for living marine resources” (8)
- Above pictures link to some recent examples illustrating how NOAA fisheries is striving to reach out and implement management designs specific to local areas.
Glossary
Overfishing - harvest rate that is predicted to cause a stock to decline to an overfished level <25% Virgin Biomass
Virgin Biomass - what was there before fishing
Stocks - the fish of a certain species located in a specific ocean area.
Stewardship - an ethic centered around responsible planning and management of natural resources
Stakeholders - people, groups of people that are affected by the management of natural resources concerning them.
more terms :
http://www.lobsterconservation.com/glossary/
http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/om2/glossary.html
Virgin Biomass - what was there before fishing
Stocks - the fish of a certain species located in a specific ocean area.
Stewardship - an ethic centered around responsible planning and management of natural resources
Stakeholders - people, groups of people that are affected by the management of natural resources concerning them.
more terms :
http://www.lobsterconservation.com/glossary/
http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/om2/glossary.html
Citations
***Listed in order of appearance***
Figures:
[1].
Fishing boats in Charleston Harbor, OR – Original photo by Robbie McNulty
[2].
Cape Arago, OR at sunset– Original photo by Robbie McNulty
[3].
Fisherman in chad- http://video.nationalgeographic.com/wallpaper/photography/photo-tips/time-moment-simply-beautiful-photos/fishermen-chad/
[4].
Fisherman with first harvest - http://www.marinephotobank.org/secure/gallery.php?gallery_id=23&click=1
photo by: ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies/Marine Photobank".
[5].
NOAA headquarters silver spring, – Original photo by Robbie McNulty
[6].
U.S Exclusive Economic zone - http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/eez.html
[7].
Women in fisheries, Bangladesh - http://www.worldfishcenter.org/our-research/research-focal-areas/gender-and-equity/research
[8].
Senator Barbro Boxer- http://boxer.senate.gov/en/press/releases/110311b.cfm
Tables:
[1]. - Modified from: Graham J., Anthony Charles and Arthur Bull. 2006.Community fisheries managementhand book. Gorsebrook Research Institute, Saint Mary’s University.
Videos:
[1].
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MOHLgUhaoQk - Caleta cooperatives with Dr. Allan Shanks
[2].
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MOHLgUhaoQk - Reflections on Change: Port Orford Ocean Resource Team
[3].
http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=endscreen&NR=1&v=SBVh-LeD9hQ - Ocean Frontiers Part 4 teaser
[4].
http://www.youtube.com/watch?NR=1&feature=endscreen&v=sJKneuQK-lI -Ocean Frontiers trailer
[5].
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ez84E1-Cp-w&feature=relmfu - Ocean Frontiers:Northeast Region
Works Cited:
[1]
Bulayi M.E. Community Based Cooperative Fisheries Management for Lake Victoria Fisheries in Tanzania,United Nations University Fisheries Training Program,Reykjavik, Iceland (2001), Available from:
<http://www.unuftp.is/proj01/BulayiPRF.pdf> Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, Fisheries Division, Tanzania.
[2]
Graham J., Anthony Charles and Arthur Bull. 2006.Community fisheries management hand book. Gorsebrook Research Institute, Saint Mary’s University.
[3]
Leesa Cobb, Caroline Gibson, Pete Stauffer. 2007. Port Orford: Implementing Community Based Ocean Management on the Oregon Coast Proceedings of Coastal Zone 07 Portland, Oregon
[4]
The WorldFish Center. © 2011 Gender and equity – research: reducing poverty and hunger by improving fisheries and aquaculture. Updated November 2011. [Cited December 2, 2011].http://www.worldfishcenter.org/our-research/research-focal-areas/gender-and-equity/research
[5]
Pomeroy, R.S. 1998. “A Process for Community-based Fisheries Co-management”AFSSR News. January – March 1998. Pages 71-76
[6]
K. St. Martin, B. McCay, G. Murray, T. Johnson and B. Oles. 2007. Communities, knowledge, and fisheries of the future. International Journal of Global Environmental Issues. 7 2/3 pp. 221–239.
[7]
Port Orford Ocean Resource Team. © 2011. Uniting science, education, local expertise and conservation: Community Based Fisheries Management. Last updated November 10, 2011.[cited November 29]. http://www.oceanresourceteam.org/
[8]
NOAA fisheries service: About the National Marine Fisheries Service. Last Updated December 1 2011 [Cited December 1, 2011]. http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/aboutus/aboutus.html
[9]
Castilla, J. C. 2010. Fisheries In Chile: Small Pelagics, Management, Rights, And Sea Zoning. Bulletin Of Marine Science. 86(2): 221–234, 2010
[10]
Bloeser, J., L. Cobb, & J. Golden. 2010. A Workshop On Alternative Tools For Nearshore Fisheries Management And A Case Study of the Port Orford Stewardship Area Plan to Implement Community-Based Fisheries Management. Managing data poor fisheries: Case Studies, Models and Solutions. (1) pp: 89-106
[11]
Castilla J.C. and S. Gelcich. 2008. Management of the loco (Concholepas concholepas) as a driver for self-governance of small-scale benthic fisheries in Chile. Bulletin Of Marine Science. 86 (2) Pages 441–451 in R.
[12]
Kearney, J. 2005. Community-Based Fisheries Management in the Bay of Fundy: Sustaining Communities through Resistance and Hope. Natural Resources as Community Assets: Lessons from Two Continents. Ed. B. Child and M.W. Lyman. Washington: Aspen Institute and Sand County Foundation
Figures:
[1].
Fishing boats in Charleston Harbor, OR – Original photo by Robbie McNulty
[2].
Cape Arago, OR at sunset– Original photo by Robbie McNulty
[3].
Fisherman in chad- http://video.nationalgeographic.com/wallpaper/photography/photo-tips/time-moment-simply-beautiful-photos/fishermen-chad/
[4].
Fisherman with first harvest - http://www.marinephotobank.org/secure/gallery.php?gallery_id=23&click=1
photo by: ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies/Marine Photobank".
[5].
NOAA headquarters silver spring, – Original photo by Robbie McNulty
[6].
U.S Exclusive Economic zone - http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/eez.html
[7].
Women in fisheries, Bangladesh - http://www.worldfishcenter.org/our-research/research-focal-areas/gender-and-equity/research
[8].
Senator Barbro Boxer- http://boxer.senate.gov/en/press/releases/110311b.cfm
Tables:
[1]. - Modified from: Graham J., Anthony Charles and Arthur Bull. 2006.Community fisheries managementhand book. Gorsebrook Research Institute, Saint Mary’s University.
Videos:
[1].
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MOHLgUhaoQk - Caleta cooperatives with Dr. Allan Shanks
[2].
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MOHLgUhaoQk - Reflections on Change: Port Orford Ocean Resource Team
[3].
http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=endscreen&NR=1&v=SBVh-LeD9hQ - Ocean Frontiers Part 4 teaser
[4].
http://www.youtube.com/watch?NR=1&feature=endscreen&v=sJKneuQK-lI -Ocean Frontiers trailer
[5].
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ez84E1-Cp-w&feature=relmfu - Ocean Frontiers:Northeast Region
Works Cited:
[1]
Bulayi M.E. Community Based Cooperative Fisheries Management for Lake Victoria Fisheries in Tanzania,United Nations University Fisheries Training Program,Reykjavik, Iceland (2001), Available from:
<http://www.unuftp.is/proj01/BulayiPRF.pdf> Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, Fisheries Division, Tanzania.
[2]
Graham J., Anthony Charles and Arthur Bull. 2006.Community fisheries management hand book. Gorsebrook Research Institute, Saint Mary’s University.
[3]
Leesa Cobb, Caroline Gibson, Pete Stauffer. 2007. Port Orford: Implementing Community Based Ocean Management on the Oregon Coast Proceedings of Coastal Zone 07 Portland, Oregon
[4]
The WorldFish Center. © 2011 Gender and equity – research: reducing poverty and hunger by improving fisheries and aquaculture. Updated November 2011. [Cited December 2, 2011].http://www.worldfishcenter.org/our-research/research-focal-areas/gender-and-equity/research
[5]
Pomeroy, R.S. 1998. “A Process for Community-based Fisheries Co-management”AFSSR News. January – March 1998. Pages 71-76
[6]
K. St. Martin, B. McCay, G. Murray, T. Johnson and B. Oles. 2007. Communities, knowledge, and fisheries of the future. International Journal of Global Environmental Issues. 7 2/3 pp. 221–239.
[7]
Port Orford Ocean Resource Team. © 2011. Uniting science, education, local expertise and conservation: Community Based Fisheries Management. Last updated November 10, 2011.[cited November 29]. http://www.oceanresourceteam.org/
[8]
NOAA fisheries service: About the National Marine Fisheries Service. Last Updated December 1 2011 [Cited December 1, 2011]. http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/aboutus/aboutus.html
[9]
Castilla, J. C. 2010. Fisheries In Chile: Small Pelagics, Management, Rights, And Sea Zoning. Bulletin Of Marine Science. 86(2): 221–234, 2010
[10]
Bloeser, J., L. Cobb, & J. Golden. 2010. A Workshop On Alternative Tools For Nearshore Fisheries Management And A Case Study of the Port Orford Stewardship Area Plan to Implement Community-Based Fisheries Management. Managing data poor fisheries: Case Studies, Models and Solutions. (1) pp: 89-106
[11]
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Created by: Robbie McNulty
E-mail: [email protected]
E-mail: [email protected]
